The alliance has also extended to addressing nonmilitary threats, including climate change. ![]() Meanwhile, Japan has committed to working with the United States to improve space, cyber, and maritime awareness capabilities and deepen science and tech cooperation, focusing on defense applications of unmanned systems and artificial intelligence. In 2020, the United States approved the sale of 105 F-35 fighters to Japan. Department of Defense Missile Defense Review describing Japan as one of the United States’ “ strongest missile defense partners”. The United States and Japan have worked closely on developing ballistic-missile technology, with the 2019 U.S. Abe’s successors, Yoshihide Suga and Fumio Kishida, who are also members of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), have mostly shared Abe’s foreign policy outlook, viewing China’s increasing power with concern and supporting increased defense spending. Since then, the countries have continued to deepen their defense cooperation. The change helped pave the way for the United States and Japan to revise their defense guidelines once again, expanding the scope of their military cooperation and focusing the alliance on current threats-including from China and North Korea-and new technologies. In 2015, under Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, Japan reinterpreted its constitution in a historic move that allowed its military to defend allies for the first time, but under limited circumstances. In 2003, it sent forces to aid in Iraq’s postwar reconstruction efforts. military operations in Afghanistan, marking Japan’s first overseas military action during a combat operation. In November 2001, the government of Junichiro Koizumi dispatched the Maritime Self-Defense Force to the Indian Ocean to provide logistical support for U.S. The early 2000s marked a period of increased defense cooperation. The fall of the Soviet Union prompted the allies to adopt new guidelines in 1997 that expanded where Japan’s military could operate, from its home islands to “surrounding areas.” Some perceived the move as Japan taking greater responsibility for its own defense. In 1992, a new law stipulated the conditions for SDF deployment in UN peacekeeping operations, and the following year, the first SDF unit was sent abroad to Cambodia. Japanese military officers and government officials later said they were humiliated by their lack of participation in the war and resolved to change the country’s pacifist constitution. Ultimately, Japan contributed funds but did not send troops. The 1990–91 Gulf War spurred debate in Japan about whether its constitution allowed the SDF to join the U.S.-led coalition to expel Iraq from Kuwait, a force that had been authorized by the UN Security Council. The two allies undertook studies on interoperability and launched joint training and exercises. It issued its first postwar defense strategy and began clarifying how it would partner with the U.S. ![]() In the 1970s, as the United States withdrew from Vietnam, Japan began to carve out a larger role within the alliance. This early pact dovetailed with the Yoshida Doctrine-a postwar strategy crafted by Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida that saw Japan rely on the United States for its security needs so the country could focus on rebuilding its economy. forces to remain on its soil after Japan regained sovereignty. Signed in 1951 alongside the Treaty of San Francisco that formally ended World War II, the U.S.-Japan Mutual Security Treaty was a ten-year, renewable agreement that outlined how Japan, in light of its pacifist constitution, would allow U.S. How did Japan and the United States become allies? ![]() troops, but President Joe Biden has so far downplayed tensions in the relationship. The Donald Trump administration escalated the dispute over Japan’s financial contributions to the alliance, publicly accusing Tokyo of not paying enough to house U.S. military bases on Okinawa and cost-sharing continue to rankle the partnership. Meanwhile, long-running conflicts over issues such as U.S.
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